Definir el uso de LA en el proceso E-A de idiomas
• Aplicación de la Lingüística, la didáctica y la psicología en el proceso E-A de idiomas.
• Estrategias para la lectura e investigación.
domingo, 1 de noviembre de 2015
lunes, 12 de octubre de 2015
Lenguage Teaching Methods
Second and Foreign Language Teaching Methods
This module provides a description of the basic principles and procedures of the most recognized and commonly used approaches and methods for teaching a second or foreign language. Each approach or method has an articulated theoretical orientation and a collection of strategies and learning activities designed to reach the specified goals and achieve the learning outcomes of the teaching and learning processes.
Jill Kerper Mora
The following approaches and methods are described below:
Grammar-Translation Approach
Direct Approach
Reading Approach
Audiolingual Approach
Community Language Learning.
The Silent Way
The Communicative Approach
Functional Notional Approach
Total Physical Response Approach
The Natural Approach
Click here for a link to an overview of the history of second or foreign language teaching.
Theoretical Orientations to L2 Methods & Approaches
There are four general orientations among modern second-language methods and approaches:
1. STRUCTURAL/LINGUISTIC:
Based on beliefs about the structure of language and descriptive or contrastive linguistics. Involves isolation of grammatical and syntactic elements of L2 taught either deductively or inductively in a predetermined sequence. Often involves much meta-linguistic content or "learning about the language" in order to learn the language.
2. COGNITIVE: Based on theories of learning applied specifically to second language learning. Focus is on the learning strategies that are compatible with the learners own style. L2 content is selected according to concepts and techniques that facilitate generalizations about the language, memorization and "competence" leading to "performance".
3. AFFECTIVE/INTERPERSONAL: Focuses on the psychological and affective pre-dispositions of the learner that enhance or inhibit learning. Emphasizes interaction among and between teacher and students and the atmosphere of the learning situation as well as students' motivation for learning. Based on concepts adapted from counseling and social psychology.
4. FUNCTIONAL/COMMUNICATIVE: Based on theories of language acquisition, often referred to as the "natural" approach, and on the use of language for communication. Encompasses multiple aspects of the communicative act, with language structures selected according to their utility in achieving a communicative purpose. Instruction is concerned with the input students receive, comprehension of the "message" of language and student involvement at the students' level of competence.
The Grammar-Translation Approach
This approach was historically used in teaching Greek and Latin. The approach was generalized to teaching modern languages.
Classes are taught in the students' mother tongue, with little active use of the target language. Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists. Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided. Grammar instruction provides the rules for putting words together; instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words. Reading of difficult texts is begun early in the course of study. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue, and vice versa. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
The Direct Approach
This approach was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation approach in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction.
Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target language. Material is first presented orally with actions or pictures. The mother tongue is NEVER, NEVER used. There is no translation. The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue or an anecdotal narrative. Questions are answered in the target language. Grammar is taught inductively--rules are generalized from the practice and experience with the target language. Verbs are used first and systematically conjugated only much later after some oral mastery of the target language. Advanced students read literature for comprehension and pleasure. Literary texts are not analyzed grammatically. The culture associated with the target language is also taught inductively. Culture is considered an important aspect of learning the language.
The Reading Approach
This approach is selected for practical and academic reasons. For specific uses of the language in graduate or scientific studies. The approach is for people who do not travel abroad for whom reading is the one usable skill in a foreign language.
The priority in studying the target language is first, reading ability and second, current and/or historical knowledge of the country where the target language is spoken.Only the grammar necessary for reading comprehension and fluency is taught.
Minimal attention is paid to pronunciation or gaining conversational skills in the target language. From the beginning, a great amount of reading is done in L2, both in and out of class. The vocabulary of the early reading passages and texts is strictly controlled for difficulty. Vocabulary is expanded as quickly as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary is considered more important that grammatical skill.Translation reappears in this approach as a respectable classroom procedure related to comprehension of the written text.
The Audiolingual Method
This method is based on the principles of behavior psychology. It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the Direct Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills of the Reading Approach.
New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on the principle that language learning is habit formation, the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively.
Skills are sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order.Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis between L1 and L2. There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids. There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course. Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. Use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among and by the students.
Successful responses are reinforced; great care is taken to prevent learner errors. There is a tendency to focus on manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and meaning.
Hints for Using Audio-lingual Drills in L2 Teaching
1. The teacher must be careful to insure that all of the utterances which students will make are actually within the practiced pattern. For example, the use of the AUX verb have should not suddenly switch to have as a main verb.
2. Drills should be conducted as rapidly as possibly so as to insure automaticity and to establish a system.
3. Ignore all but gross errors of pronunciation when drilling for grammar practice.
4. Use of shortcuts to keep the pace o drills at a maximum. Use hand motions, signal cards, notes, etc. to cue response. You are a choir director.
5. Use normal English stress, intonation, and juncture patterns conscientiously.
6. Drill material should always be meaningful. If the content words are not known, teach their meanings.
7. Intersperse short periods of drill (about 10 minutes) with very brief alternative activities to avoid fatigue and boredom.
8. Introduce the drill in this way:
a. Focus (by writing on the board, for example)
b. Exemplify (by speaking model sentences)
c. Explain (if a simple grammatical explanation is needed)
d. Drill
9. Don’t stand in one place; move about the room standing next to as many different students as possible to spot check their production. Thus you will know who to give more practice to during individual drilling.
10. Use the "backward buildup" technique for long and/or difficult patterns.
--tomorrow
--in the cafeteria tomorrow
--will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow
--Those boys will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow.
11. Arrange to present drills in the order of increasing complexity of student response. The question is: How much internal organization or decision making must the student do in order to make a response in this drill. Thus: imitation first, single-slot substitution next, then free response last.
Community Language Learning
Curran, C.A. (1976). Counseling-Learning in Second Languages. Apple River, Illinois: Apple River Press, 1976.
This methodology created by Charles Curran is not based on the usual methods by which languages are taught. Rather the approach is patterned upon counseling techniques and adapted to the peculiar anxiety and threat as well as the personal and language problems a person encounters in the learning of foreign languages. Consequently, the learner is not thought of as a student but as a client. The native instructors of the language are not considered teachers but, rather are trained in counseling skills adapted to their roles as language counselors.
The language-counseling relationship begins with the client's linguistic confusion and conflict. The aim of the language counselor's skill is first to communicate an empathy for the client's threatened inadequate state and to aid him linguistically. Then slowly the teacher-counselor strives to enable him to arrive at his own increasingly independent language adequacy. This process is furthered by the language counselor's ability to establish a warm, understanding, and accepting relationship, thus becoming an "other-language self" for the client. The process involves five stages of adaptation:
STAGE 1
The client is completely dependent on the language counselor.
1. First, he expresses only to the counselor and in English what he wishes to say to the group. Each group member overhears this English exchange but no other members of the group are involved in the interaction.
2. The counselor then reflects these ideas back to the client in the foreign language in a warm, accepting tone, in simple language in phrases of five or six words.
3. The client turns to the group and presents his ideas in the foreign language. He has the counselor's aid if he mispronounces or hesitates on a word or phrase. This is the client's maximum security stage.
STAGE 2
1. Same as above.
2. The client turns and begins to speak the foreign language directly to the group.
3. The counselor aids only as the client hesitates or turns for help. These small independent steps are signs of positive confidence and hope.
STAGE 3
1. The client speaks directly to the group in the foreign language. This presumes that the group has now acquired the ability to understand his simple phrases.
2. Same as 3 above. This presumes the client's greater confidence, independence, and proportionate insight into the relationship of phrases, grammar, and ideas. Translation is given only when a group member desires it.
STAGE 4
1. The client is now speaking freely and complexly in the foreign language. Presumes group's understanding.
2. The counselor directly intervenes in grammatical error, mispronunciation, or where aid in complex expression is needed. The client is sufficiently secure to take correction.
STAGE 5
1. Same as stage 4.
2. The counselor intervenes not only to offer correction but to add idioms and more elegant constructions.
3. At this stage the client can become counselor to the group in stages 1, 2, and 3.
The Silent Way
Gattegno, C. (1972).Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way. New York City: Educational Solutions.
Procedures
This method created by Caleb Gattegno begins by using a set of colored rods and verbal commands in order to achieve the following:
To avoid the use of the vernacular. To create simple linguistic situations that remain under the complete control of the teacher To pass on to the learners the responsibility for the utterances of the descriptions of the objects shown or the actions performed. To let the teacher concentrate on what the students say and how they are saying it, drawing their attention to the differences in pronunciation and the flow of words. To generate a serious game-like situation in which the rules are implicitly agreed upon by giving meaning to the gestures of the teacher and his mime.
To permit almost from the start a switch from the lone voice of the teacher using the foreign language to a number of voices using it. This introduces components of pitch, timbre and intensity that will constantly reduce the impact of one voice and hence reduce imitation and encourage personal production of one's own brand of the sounds.
To provide the support of perception and action to the intellectual guess of what the noises mean, thus bring in the arsenal of the usual criteria of experience already developed and automatic in one's use of the mother tongue. To provide a duration of spontaneous speech upon which the teacher and the students can work to obtain a similarity of melody to the one heard, thus providing melodic integrative schemata from the start.
Materials
The complete set of materials utilized as the language learning progresses include:
A set of colored wooden rods A set of wall charts containing words of a "functional" vocabulary and some additional ones; a pointer for use with the charts in Visual Dictation A color coded phonic chart(s) Tapes or discs, as required; films Drawings and pictures, and a set of accompanying worksheets Transparencies, three texts, a Book of Stories, worksheets.
The Communicative Approach
What is communicative competence?
Communicative competence is the progressive acquisition of the ability to use a language to achieve one's communicative purpose.
Communicative competence involves the negotiation of meaning between meaning between two or more persons sharing the same symbolic system.
Communicative competence applies to both spoken and written language.
Communicative competence is context specific based on the situation, the role of the participants and the appropriate choices of register and style. For example: The variation of language used by persons in different jobs or professions can be either formal or informal. The use of jargon or slang may or may not be appropriate.
Communicative competence represents a shift in focus from the grammatical to the communicative properties of the language; i.e. the functions of language and the process of discourse.
Communicative competence requires the mastery of the production and comprehension of communicative acts or speech acts that are relevant to the needs of the L2 learner.
Characteristics of the Communicative Classroom
The classroom is devoted primarily to activities that foster acquisition of L2. Learning activities involving practice and drill are assigned as homework.
The instructor does not correct speech errors directly.
Students are allowed to respond in the target language, their native language, or a mixture of the two.
The focus of all learning and speaking activities is on the interchange of a message that the acquirer understands and wishes to transmit, i.e. meaningful communication.
The students receive comprehensible input in a low-anxiety environment and are personally involved in class activities. Comprehensible input has the following major components:
a. a context
b. gestures and other body language cues
c. a message to be comprehended
d. a knowledge of the meaning of key lexical items in the utterance
Stages of language acquisition in the communicative approach
1. Comprehension or pre-production
a. Total physical response
b. Answer with names--objects, students, pictures
2. Early speech production
a. Yes-no questions
b. Either-or questions
c. Single/two-word answers
d. Open-ended questions
e. Open dialogs
f. Interviews
3. Speech emerges
a. Games and recreational activities
b. Content activities
c. Humanistic-affective activities
d. Information-problem-solving activities
Functional-Notional Approach
Finocchiaro, M. & Brumfit, C. (1983). The Functional-Notional Approach. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
This method of language teaching is categorized along with others under the rubric of a communicative approach. The method stresses a means of organizing a language syllabus. The emphasis is on breaking down the global concept of language into units of analysis in terms of communicative situations in which they are used.
Notions are meaning elements that may be expressed through nouns, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, adjectives or adverbs. The use of particular notions depends on three major factors: a. the functions b. the elements in the situation, and c. the topic being discussed.
A situation may affect variations of language such as the use of dialects, the formality or informality of the language and the mode of expression. Situation includes the following elements:
A. The persons taking part in the speech act
B. The place where the conversation occurs
C. The time the speech act is taking place
D. The topic or activity that is being discussed
Exponents are the language utterances or statements that stem from the function, the situation and the topic.
Code is the shared language of a community of speakers.
Code-switching is a change or switch in code during the speech act, which many theorists believe is purposeful behavior to convey bonding, language prestige or other elements of interpersonal relations between the speakers.
Functional Categories of Language
Mary Finocchiaro (1983, p. 65-66) has placed the functional categories under five headings as noted below: personal, interpersonal, directive, referential, andimaginative.
Personal = Clarifying or arranging one’s ideas; expressing one’s thoughts or feelings: love, joy, pleasure, happiness, surprise, likes, satisfaction, dislikes, disappointment, distress, pain, anger, anguish, fear, anxiety, sorrow, frustration, annoyance at missed opportunities, moral, intellectual and social concerns; and the everyday feelings of hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleepiness, cold, or warmth
Interpersonal = Enabling us to establish and maintain desirable social and working relationships: Enabling us to establish and maintain desirable social and working relationships:
greetings and leave takings
introducing people to others
identifying oneself to others.
expressing joy at another’s success.
expressing concern for other people’s welfare extending and accepting invitations
refusing invitations politely or making alternative arrangements making appointments for meetings
breaking appointments politely and arranging another mutually convenient time apologizing
excusing oneself and accepting excuses for not meeting commitments indicating agreement or disagreement interrupting another speaker politely
changing an embarrassing subject receiving visitors and paying visits to others offering food or drinks and accepting or declining politely sharing wishes, hopes, desires, problems
making promises and committing oneself to some action complimenting someone making excuses
expressing and acknowledging gratitude.
Directive = Attempting to influence the actions of others; accepting or refusing direction:
making suggestions in which the speaker is included
making requests; making suggestions
refusing to accept a suggestion or a request but offering an alternativa persuading someone to change his point of viene requesting and granting permiso ion asking for help and responding to a plea for help forbidding someone to do something; issuing a comando giving and responding to instrucciones warning someone discouraging someone from pursuing a course of action
establishing guidelines and deadlines for the completion of actions asking for directions or instructions.
Referential = talking or reporting about things, actions, events, or people in the environment in the past or in the future; talking about language (what is termed the metalinguistic function: = talking or reporting about things, actions, events, or people in the environment in the past or in the future; talking about language (what is termed the metalinguistic function:
identifying items or people in the classroom, the school the home, the community
asking for a description of someone or something
defining something or a language item or asking for a definition paraphrasing, summarizing, or translating (L1 to L2 or vice versa)
explaining or asking for explanations of how something words comparing or contrasting things
discussing possibilities, probabilities, or capabilities of doing something requesting or reporting facts about events or actions evaluating the results of an action or event
Imaginative = Discussions involving elements of creativity and artistic expressions discussing a poem, a story, a piece of music, a play, a painting, a film, a TV program, etc.
expanding ideas suggested by other or by a piece of literature or reading material creating rhymes, poetry, stories or plays recombining familiar dialogs or passages creativos y suggesting original beginnings or endings to dialogs or stories
solving problems or mysteries
Total Physical Response
Asher, J.C. (1979). Learning Another Language Through Actions. San Jose, California: AccuPrint.
James J. Asher defines the Total Physical Response (TPR) method as one that combines information and skills through the use of the kinesthetic sensory system. This combination of skills allows the student to assimilate information and skills at a rapid rate. As a result, this success leads to a high degree of motivation. The basic tenets are:
Understanding the spoken language before developing the skills of speaking. Imperatives are the main structures to transfer or communicate information. The student is not forced to speak, but is allowed an individual readiness period and allowed to spontaneously begin to speak when the student feels comfortable and confident in understanding and producing the utterances.
TECHNIQUE
Step I The teacher says the commands as he himself performs the action.
Step 2 The teacher says the command as both the teacher and the students then perform the action.
Step 3 The teacher says the command but only students perform the action
Step 4 The teacher tells one student at a time to do commands
Step 5 The roles of teacher and student are reversed. Students give commands to teacher and to other students.
Step 6 The teacher and student allow for command expansion or produces new sentences.
The Natural Approach
The Natural Approach and the Communicative Approach share a common theoretical and philosophical base.The Natural Approach to L2 teaching is based on the following hypotheses:
1. The acquisition-learning distinction hypothesis
Adults can "get" a second language much as they learn their first language, through informal, implicit, subconscious learning. The conscious, explicit, formal linguistic knowledge of a language is a different, and often non-essential process.
2. The natural order of acquisition hypothesis
L2 learners acquire forms in a predictable order. This order very closely parallels the acquisition of grammatical and syntactic structures in the first language.
3. The monitor hypothesis
Fluency in L2 comes from the acquisition process. Learning produces a "monitoring" or editor of performance. The application of the monitor function requires time, focus on form and knowledge of the rule.
4. The input hypothesis
Language is acquired through comprehensible input. If an L2 learner is at a certain stage in language acquisition and he/she understands something that includes a structure at the next stage, this helps him/her to acquire that structure. Thus, the i+1 concept, where i= the stage of acquisition.
5. The affective hypothesis
People with certain personalities and certain motivations perform better in L2 acquisition. Learners with high self-esteem and high levels of self-confidence acquire L2 faster. Also, certain low-anxiety pleasant situations are more conducive to L2 acquisition.
6. The filter hypothesis
There exists an affective filter or "mental block" that can prevent input from "getting in." Pedagogically, the more that is done to lower the filter, the more acquisition can take place. A low filter is achieved through low-anxiety, relaxation, non-defensiveness.
7. The aptitude hypothesis
There is such a thing as a language learning aptitude. This aptitude can be measured and is highly correlated with general learning aptitude. However, aptitude relates more to learning while attitude relates more to acquisition.
8. The first language hypothesis
The L2 learner will naturally substitute competence in L1 for competence in L2. Learners should not be forced to use the L1 to generate L2 performance. A silent period and insertion of L1 into L2 utterances should be expected and tolerated.
9. The textuality hypothesis
The event-structures of experience are textual in nature and will be easier to produce, understand, and recall to the extent that discourse or text is motivated and structured episodically. Consequently, L2 teaching materials are more successful when they incorporate principles of good story writing along with sound linguistic analysis.
10. The expectancy hypothesis
Discourse has a type of "cognitive momentum." The activation of correct expectancies will enhance the processing of textual structures. Consequently, L2 learners must be guided to develop the sort of native-speaker "intuitions" that make discourse predictable.
Source: Krashen, S.D. , & Terrell, T.D. (1983). The Natural Approach. Hayward, CA: The Alemany Press.
Language teaching methodologies
Listed below are brief summaries of some of the more popular second language teaching methods of the last half century. For a more detailed analysis of the different methods, see Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching Richards, J. and Rodgers, T (1986) CUP Cambridge.
The Direct Method
In this method the teaching is done entirely in the target language. The learner is not allowed to use his or her mother tongue. Grammar rules are avoided and there is emphasis on good pronunciation.
Grammar-translation
Learning is largely by translation to and from the target language. Grammar rules are to be memorized and long lists of vocabulary learned by heart. There is little or no emphasis placed on developing oral ability.
Audio-lingual
The theory behind this method is that learning a language means acquiring habits. There is much practice of dialogues of every situations. New language is first heard and extensively drilled before being seen in its written form.
The structural approach
This method sees language as a complex of grammatical rules which are to be learned one at a time in a set order. So for example the verb "to be" is introduced and practised before the present continuous tense which uses "to be" as an auxiliary.
Suggestopedia
The theory underlying this method is that a language can be acquired only when the learner is receptive and has no mental blocks. By various methods it is suggested to the student that the language is easy - and in this way the mental blocks to learning are removed.
Total Physical Response (TPR)
TPR works by having the learner respond to simple commands such as "Stand up", "Close your book", "Go to the window and open it." The method stresses the importance of aural comprehension.
Communicative language teaching (CLT)
The focus of this method is to enable the learner to communicate effectively and appropriately in the various situations she would be likely to find herself in. The content of CLT courses are functions such as inviting, suggesting, complaining or notions such as the expression of time, quantity, location.
The Silent Way
This is so called because the aim of the teacher is to say as little as possible in order that the learner can be in control of what he wants to say. No use is made of the mother tongue.
Community Language Learning
In this method attempts are made to build strong personal links between the teacher and student so that there are no blocks to learning. There is much talk in the mother tongue which is translated by the teacher for repetition by the student.
Immersion
This corresponds to a great extent to the situation we have at our school. ESL students are immersed in the English language for the whole of the school day and expected to learn math, science, humanities etc. through the medium of the target language, English.
Immigrant students who attend local schools find themselves in an immersion situation; for example refugee children from Bosnia attending German schools, or Puerto Ricans in American schools.
Task-based language learning
The focus of the teaching is on the completion of a task which in itself is interesting to the learners. Learners use the language they already have to complete the task and there is little correction of errors.
(This is the predominant method in middle school ESL teaching at Frankfurt International School. The tasks are subsumed in a major topic that is studied for a number of weeks. In the topic of ecology, for example, students are engaged in a number of tasks culminating in a poster presentation to the rest of the class. The tasks include reading, searching the internet, listening to taped material, selecting important vocabulary to teach other students etc.)
The Natural Approach
This approach, propounded by Professor S. Krashen, stresses the similarities between learning the first and second languages. There is no correction of mistakes. Learning takes place by the students being exposed to language that is comprehensible or made comprehensible to them.
The Lexical Syllabus
This approach is based on a computer analysis of language which identifies the most common (and hence most useful) words in the language and their various uses. The syllabus teaches these words in broadly the order of their frequency, and great emphasis is placed on the use of authentic materials.
See: Willis, D. (1990) The Lexical Syllabus. Collins Cobuild
This module provides a description of the basic principles and procedures of the most recognized and commonly used approaches and methods for teaching a second or foreign language. Each approach or method has an articulated theoretical orientation and a collection of strategies and learning activities designed to reach the specified goals and achieve the learning outcomes of the teaching and learning processes.
Jill Kerper Mora
The following approaches and methods are described below:
Grammar-Translation Approach
Direct Approach
Reading Approach
Audiolingual Approach
Community Language Learning.
The Silent Way
The Communicative Approach
Functional Notional Approach
Total Physical Response Approach
The Natural Approach
Click here for a link to an overview of the history of second or foreign language teaching.
Theoretical Orientations to L2 Methods & Approaches
There are four general orientations among modern second-language methods and approaches:
1. STRUCTURAL/LINGUISTIC:
Based on beliefs about the structure of language and descriptive or contrastive linguistics. Involves isolation of grammatical and syntactic elements of L2 taught either deductively or inductively in a predetermined sequence. Often involves much meta-linguistic content or "learning about the language" in order to learn the language.
2. COGNITIVE: Based on theories of learning applied specifically to second language learning. Focus is on the learning strategies that are compatible with the learners own style. L2 content is selected according to concepts and techniques that facilitate generalizations about the language, memorization and "competence" leading to "performance".
3. AFFECTIVE/INTERPERSONAL: Focuses on the psychological and affective pre-dispositions of the learner that enhance or inhibit learning. Emphasizes interaction among and between teacher and students and the atmosphere of the learning situation as well as students' motivation for learning. Based on concepts adapted from counseling and social psychology.
4. FUNCTIONAL/COMMUNICATIVE: Based on theories of language acquisition, often referred to as the "natural" approach, and on the use of language for communication. Encompasses multiple aspects of the communicative act, with language structures selected according to their utility in achieving a communicative purpose. Instruction is concerned with the input students receive, comprehension of the "message" of language and student involvement at the students' level of competence.
The Grammar-Translation Approach
This approach was historically used in teaching Greek and Latin. The approach was generalized to teaching modern languages.
Classes are taught in the students' mother tongue, with little active use of the target language. Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists. Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided. Grammar instruction provides the rules for putting words together; instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words. Reading of difficult texts is begun early in the course of study. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue, and vice versa. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
The Direct Approach
This approach was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation approach in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction.
Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target language. Material is first presented orally with actions or pictures. The mother tongue is NEVER, NEVER used. There is no translation. The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue or an anecdotal narrative. Questions are answered in the target language. Grammar is taught inductively--rules are generalized from the practice and experience with the target language. Verbs are used first and systematically conjugated only much later after some oral mastery of the target language. Advanced students read literature for comprehension and pleasure. Literary texts are not analyzed grammatically. The culture associated with the target language is also taught inductively. Culture is considered an important aspect of learning the language.
The Reading Approach
This approach is selected for practical and academic reasons. For specific uses of the language in graduate or scientific studies. The approach is for people who do not travel abroad for whom reading is the one usable skill in a foreign language.
The priority in studying the target language is first, reading ability and second, current and/or historical knowledge of the country where the target language is spoken.Only the grammar necessary for reading comprehension and fluency is taught.
Minimal attention is paid to pronunciation or gaining conversational skills in the target language. From the beginning, a great amount of reading is done in L2, both in and out of class. The vocabulary of the early reading passages and texts is strictly controlled for difficulty. Vocabulary is expanded as quickly as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary is considered more important that grammatical skill.Translation reappears in this approach as a respectable classroom procedure related to comprehension of the written text.
The Audiolingual Method
This method is based on the principles of behavior psychology. It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the Direct Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills of the Reading Approach.
New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on the principle that language learning is habit formation, the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively.
Skills are sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order.Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis between L1 and L2. There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids. There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course. Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. Use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among and by the students.
Successful responses are reinforced; great care is taken to prevent learner errors. There is a tendency to focus on manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and meaning.
Hints for Using Audio-lingual Drills in L2 Teaching
1. The teacher must be careful to insure that all of the utterances which students will make are actually within the practiced pattern. For example, the use of the AUX verb have should not suddenly switch to have as a main verb.
2. Drills should be conducted as rapidly as possibly so as to insure automaticity and to establish a system.
3. Ignore all but gross errors of pronunciation when drilling for grammar practice.
4. Use of shortcuts to keep the pace o drills at a maximum. Use hand motions, signal cards, notes, etc. to cue response. You are a choir director.
5. Use normal English stress, intonation, and juncture patterns conscientiously.
6. Drill material should always be meaningful. If the content words are not known, teach their meanings.
7. Intersperse short periods of drill (about 10 minutes) with very brief alternative activities to avoid fatigue and boredom.
8. Introduce the drill in this way:
a. Focus (by writing on the board, for example)
b. Exemplify (by speaking model sentences)
c. Explain (if a simple grammatical explanation is needed)
d. Drill
9. Don’t stand in one place; move about the room standing next to as many different students as possible to spot check their production. Thus you will know who to give more practice to during individual drilling.
10. Use the "backward buildup" technique for long and/or difficult patterns.
--tomorrow
--in the cafeteria tomorrow
--will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow
--Those boys will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow.
11. Arrange to present drills in the order of increasing complexity of student response. The question is: How much internal organization or decision making must the student do in order to make a response in this drill. Thus: imitation first, single-slot substitution next, then free response last.
Community Language Learning
Curran, C.A. (1976). Counseling-Learning in Second Languages. Apple River, Illinois: Apple River Press, 1976.
This methodology created by Charles Curran is not based on the usual methods by which languages are taught. Rather the approach is patterned upon counseling techniques and adapted to the peculiar anxiety and threat as well as the personal and language problems a person encounters in the learning of foreign languages. Consequently, the learner is not thought of as a student but as a client. The native instructors of the language are not considered teachers but, rather are trained in counseling skills adapted to their roles as language counselors.
The language-counseling relationship begins with the client's linguistic confusion and conflict. The aim of the language counselor's skill is first to communicate an empathy for the client's threatened inadequate state and to aid him linguistically. Then slowly the teacher-counselor strives to enable him to arrive at his own increasingly independent language adequacy. This process is furthered by the language counselor's ability to establish a warm, understanding, and accepting relationship, thus becoming an "other-language self" for the client. The process involves five stages of adaptation:
STAGE 1
The client is completely dependent on the language counselor.
1. First, he expresses only to the counselor and in English what he wishes to say to the group. Each group member overhears this English exchange but no other members of the group are involved in the interaction.
2. The counselor then reflects these ideas back to the client in the foreign language in a warm, accepting tone, in simple language in phrases of five or six words.
3. The client turns to the group and presents his ideas in the foreign language. He has the counselor's aid if he mispronounces or hesitates on a word or phrase. This is the client's maximum security stage.
STAGE 2
1. Same as above.
2. The client turns and begins to speak the foreign language directly to the group.
3. The counselor aids only as the client hesitates or turns for help. These small independent steps are signs of positive confidence and hope.
STAGE 3
1. The client speaks directly to the group in the foreign language. This presumes that the group has now acquired the ability to understand his simple phrases.
2. Same as 3 above. This presumes the client's greater confidence, independence, and proportionate insight into the relationship of phrases, grammar, and ideas. Translation is given only when a group member desires it.
STAGE 4
1. The client is now speaking freely and complexly in the foreign language. Presumes group's understanding.
2. The counselor directly intervenes in grammatical error, mispronunciation, or where aid in complex expression is needed. The client is sufficiently secure to take correction.
STAGE 5
1. Same as stage 4.
2. The counselor intervenes not only to offer correction but to add idioms and more elegant constructions.
3. At this stage the client can become counselor to the group in stages 1, 2, and 3.
The Silent Way
Gattegno, C. (1972).Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way. New York City: Educational Solutions.
Procedures
This method created by Caleb Gattegno begins by using a set of colored rods and verbal commands in order to achieve the following:
To avoid the use of the vernacular. To create simple linguistic situations that remain under the complete control of the teacher To pass on to the learners the responsibility for the utterances of the descriptions of the objects shown or the actions performed. To let the teacher concentrate on what the students say and how they are saying it, drawing their attention to the differences in pronunciation and the flow of words. To generate a serious game-like situation in which the rules are implicitly agreed upon by giving meaning to the gestures of the teacher and his mime.
To permit almost from the start a switch from the lone voice of the teacher using the foreign language to a number of voices using it. This introduces components of pitch, timbre and intensity that will constantly reduce the impact of one voice and hence reduce imitation and encourage personal production of one's own brand of the sounds.
To provide the support of perception and action to the intellectual guess of what the noises mean, thus bring in the arsenal of the usual criteria of experience already developed and automatic in one's use of the mother tongue. To provide a duration of spontaneous speech upon which the teacher and the students can work to obtain a similarity of melody to the one heard, thus providing melodic integrative schemata from the start.
Materials
The complete set of materials utilized as the language learning progresses include:
A set of colored wooden rods A set of wall charts containing words of a "functional" vocabulary and some additional ones; a pointer for use with the charts in Visual Dictation A color coded phonic chart(s) Tapes or discs, as required; films Drawings and pictures, and a set of accompanying worksheets Transparencies, three texts, a Book of Stories, worksheets.
The Communicative Approach
What is communicative competence?
Communicative competence is the progressive acquisition of the ability to use a language to achieve one's communicative purpose.
Communicative competence involves the negotiation of meaning between meaning between two or more persons sharing the same symbolic system.
Communicative competence applies to both spoken and written language.
Communicative competence is context specific based on the situation, the role of the participants and the appropriate choices of register and style. For example: The variation of language used by persons in different jobs or professions can be either formal or informal. The use of jargon or slang may or may not be appropriate.
Communicative competence represents a shift in focus from the grammatical to the communicative properties of the language; i.e. the functions of language and the process of discourse.
Communicative competence requires the mastery of the production and comprehension of communicative acts or speech acts that are relevant to the needs of the L2 learner.
Characteristics of the Communicative Classroom
The classroom is devoted primarily to activities that foster acquisition of L2. Learning activities involving practice and drill are assigned as homework.
The instructor does not correct speech errors directly.
Students are allowed to respond in the target language, their native language, or a mixture of the two.
The focus of all learning and speaking activities is on the interchange of a message that the acquirer understands and wishes to transmit, i.e. meaningful communication.
The students receive comprehensible input in a low-anxiety environment and are personally involved in class activities. Comprehensible input has the following major components:
a. a context
b. gestures and other body language cues
c. a message to be comprehended
d. a knowledge of the meaning of key lexical items in the utterance
Stages of language acquisition in the communicative approach
1. Comprehension or pre-production
a. Total physical response
b. Answer with names--objects, students, pictures
2. Early speech production
a. Yes-no questions
b. Either-or questions
c. Single/two-word answers
d. Open-ended questions
e. Open dialogs
f. Interviews
3. Speech emerges
a. Games and recreational activities
b. Content activities
c. Humanistic-affective activities
d. Information-problem-solving activities
Functional-Notional Approach
Finocchiaro, M. & Brumfit, C. (1983). The Functional-Notional Approach. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
This method of language teaching is categorized along with others under the rubric of a communicative approach. The method stresses a means of organizing a language syllabus. The emphasis is on breaking down the global concept of language into units of analysis in terms of communicative situations in which they are used.
Notions are meaning elements that may be expressed through nouns, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, adjectives or adverbs. The use of particular notions depends on three major factors: a. the functions b. the elements in the situation, and c. the topic being discussed.
A situation may affect variations of language such as the use of dialects, the formality or informality of the language and the mode of expression. Situation includes the following elements:
A. The persons taking part in the speech act
B. The place where the conversation occurs
C. The time the speech act is taking place
D. The topic or activity that is being discussed
Exponents are the language utterances or statements that stem from the function, the situation and the topic.
Code is the shared language of a community of speakers.
Code-switching is a change or switch in code during the speech act, which many theorists believe is purposeful behavior to convey bonding, language prestige or other elements of interpersonal relations between the speakers.
Functional Categories of Language
Mary Finocchiaro (1983, p. 65-66) has placed the functional categories under five headings as noted below: personal, interpersonal, directive, referential, andimaginative.
Personal = Clarifying or arranging one’s ideas; expressing one’s thoughts or feelings: love, joy, pleasure, happiness, surprise, likes, satisfaction, dislikes, disappointment, distress, pain, anger, anguish, fear, anxiety, sorrow, frustration, annoyance at missed opportunities, moral, intellectual and social concerns; and the everyday feelings of hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleepiness, cold, or warmth
Interpersonal = Enabling us to establish and maintain desirable social and working relationships: Enabling us to establish and maintain desirable social and working relationships:
greetings and leave takings
introducing people to others
identifying oneself to others.
expressing joy at another’s success.
expressing concern for other people’s welfare extending and accepting invitations
refusing invitations politely or making alternative arrangements making appointments for meetings
breaking appointments politely and arranging another mutually convenient time apologizing
excusing oneself and accepting excuses for not meeting commitments indicating agreement or disagreement interrupting another speaker politely
changing an embarrassing subject receiving visitors and paying visits to others offering food or drinks and accepting or declining politely sharing wishes, hopes, desires, problems
making promises and committing oneself to some action complimenting someone making excuses
expressing and acknowledging gratitude.
Directive = Attempting to influence the actions of others; accepting or refusing direction:
making suggestions in which the speaker is included
making requests; making suggestions
refusing to accept a suggestion or a request but offering an alternativa persuading someone to change his point of viene requesting and granting permiso ion asking for help and responding to a plea for help forbidding someone to do something; issuing a comando giving and responding to instrucciones warning someone discouraging someone from pursuing a course of action
establishing guidelines and deadlines for the completion of actions asking for directions or instructions.
Referential = talking or reporting about things, actions, events, or people in the environment in the past or in the future; talking about language (what is termed the metalinguistic function: = talking or reporting about things, actions, events, or people in the environment in the past or in the future; talking about language (what is termed the metalinguistic function:
identifying items or people in the classroom, the school the home, the community
asking for a description of someone or something
defining something or a language item or asking for a definition paraphrasing, summarizing, or translating (L1 to L2 or vice versa)
explaining or asking for explanations of how something words comparing or contrasting things
discussing possibilities, probabilities, or capabilities of doing something requesting or reporting facts about events or actions evaluating the results of an action or event
Imaginative = Discussions involving elements of creativity and artistic expressions discussing a poem, a story, a piece of music, a play, a painting, a film, a TV program, etc.
expanding ideas suggested by other or by a piece of literature or reading material creating rhymes, poetry, stories or plays recombining familiar dialogs or passages creativos y suggesting original beginnings or endings to dialogs or stories
solving problems or mysteries
Total Physical Response
Asher, J.C. (1979). Learning Another Language Through Actions. San Jose, California: AccuPrint.
James J. Asher defines the Total Physical Response (TPR) method as one that combines information and skills through the use of the kinesthetic sensory system. This combination of skills allows the student to assimilate information and skills at a rapid rate. As a result, this success leads to a high degree of motivation. The basic tenets are:
Understanding the spoken language before developing the skills of speaking. Imperatives are the main structures to transfer or communicate information. The student is not forced to speak, but is allowed an individual readiness period and allowed to spontaneously begin to speak when the student feels comfortable and confident in understanding and producing the utterances.
TECHNIQUE
Step I The teacher says the commands as he himself performs the action.
Step 2 The teacher says the command as both the teacher and the students then perform the action.
Step 3 The teacher says the command but only students perform the action
Step 4 The teacher tells one student at a time to do commands
Step 5 The roles of teacher and student are reversed. Students give commands to teacher and to other students.
Step 6 The teacher and student allow for command expansion or produces new sentences.
The Natural Approach
The Natural Approach and the Communicative Approach share a common theoretical and philosophical base.The Natural Approach to L2 teaching is based on the following hypotheses:
1. The acquisition-learning distinction hypothesis
Adults can "get" a second language much as they learn their first language, through informal, implicit, subconscious learning. The conscious, explicit, formal linguistic knowledge of a language is a different, and often non-essential process.
2. The natural order of acquisition hypothesis
L2 learners acquire forms in a predictable order. This order very closely parallels the acquisition of grammatical and syntactic structures in the first language.
3. The monitor hypothesis
Fluency in L2 comes from the acquisition process. Learning produces a "monitoring" or editor of performance. The application of the monitor function requires time, focus on form and knowledge of the rule.
4. The input hypothesis
Language is acquired through comprehensible input. If an L2 learner is at a certain stage in language acquisition and he/she understands something that includes a structure at the next stage, this helps him/her to acquire that structure. Thus, the i+1 concept, where i= the stage of acquisition.
5. The affective hypothesis
People with certain personalities and certain motivations perform better in L2 acquisition. Learners with high self-esteem and high levels of self-confidence acquire L2 faster. Also, certain low-anxiety pleasant situations are more conducive to L2 acquisition.
6. The filter hypothesis
There exists an affective filter or "mental block" that can prevent input from "getting in." Pedagogically, the more that is done to lower the filter, the more acquisition can take place. A low filter is achieved through low-anxiety, relaxation, non-defensiveness.
7. The aptitude hypothesis
There is such a thing as a language learning aptitude. This aptitude can be measured and is highly correlated with general learning aptitude. However, aptitude relates more to learning while attitude relates more to acquisition.
8. The first language hypothesis
The L2 learner will naturally substitute competence in L1 for competence in L2. Learners should not be forced to use the L1 to generate L2 performance. A silent period and insertion of L1 into L2 utterances should be expected and tolerated.
9. The textuality hypothesis
The event-structures of experience are textual in nature and will be easier to produce, understand, and recall to the extent that discourse or text is motivated and structured episodically. Consequently, L2 teaching materials are more successful when they incorporate principles of good story writing along with sound linguistic analysis.
10. The expectancy hypothesis
Discourse has a type of "cognitive momentum." The activation of correct expectancies will enhance the processing of textual structures. Consequently, L2 learners must be guided to develop the sort of native-speaker "intuitions" that make discourse predictable.
Source: Krashen, S.D. , & Terrell, T.D. (1983). The Natural Approach. Hayward, CA: The Alemany Press.
Language teaching methodologies
Listed below are brief summaries of some of the more popular second language teaching methods of the last half century. For a more detailed analysis of the different methods, see Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching Richards, J. and Rodgers, T (1986) CUP Cambridge.
The Direct Method
In this method the teaching is done entirely in the target language. The learner is not allowed to use his or her mother tongue. Grammar rules are avoided and there is emphasis on good pronunciation.
Grammar-translation
Learning is largely by translation to and from the target language. Grammar rules are to be memorized and long lists of vocabulary learned by heart. There is little or no emphasis placed on developing oral ability.
Audio-lingual
The theory behind this method is that learning a language means acquiring habits. There is much practice of dialogues of every situations. New language is first heard and extensively drilled before being seen in its written form.
The structural approach
This method sees language as a complex of grammatical rules which are to be learned one at a time in a set order. So for example the verb "to be" is introduced and practised before the present continuous tense which uses "to be" as an auxiliary.
Suggestopedia
The theory underlying this method is that a language can be acquired only when the learner is receptive and has no mental blocks. By various methods it is suggested to the student that the language is easy - and in this way the mental blocks to learning are removed.
Total Physical Response (TPR)
TPR works by having the learner respond to simple commands such as "Stand up", "Close your book", "Go to the window and open it." The method stresses the importance of aural comprehension.
Communicative language teaching (CLT)
The focus of this method is to enable the learner to communicate effectively and appropriately in the various situations she would be likely to find herself in. The content of CLT courses are functions such as inviting, suggesting, complaining or notions such as the expression of time, quantity, location.
The Silent Way
This is so called because the aim of the teacher is to say as little as possible in order that the learner can be in control of what he wants to say. No use is made of the mother tongue.
Community Language Learning
In this method attempts are made to build strong personal links between the teacher and student so that there are no blocks to learning. There is much talk in the mother tongue which is translated by the teacher for repetition by the student.
Immersion
This corresponds to a great extent to the situation we have at our school. ESL students are immersed in the English language for the whole of the school day and expected to learn math, science, humanities etc. through the medium of the target language, English.
Immigrant students who attend local schools find themselves in an immersion situation; for example refugee children from Bosnia attending German schools, or Puerto Ricans in American schools.
Task-based language learning
The focus of the teaching is on the completion of a task which in itself is interesting to the learners. Learners use the language they already have to complete the task and there is little correction of errors.
(This is the predominant method in middle school ESL teaching at Frankfurt International School. The tasks are subsumed in a major topic that is studied for a number of weeks. In the topic of ecology, for example, students are engaged in a number of tasks culminating in a poster presentation to the rest of the class. The tasks include reading, searching the internet, listening to taped material, selecting important vocabulary to teach other students etc.)
The Natural Approach
This approach, propounded by Professor S. Krashen, stresses the similarities between learning the first and second languages. There is no correction of mistakes. Learning takes place by the students being exposed to language that is comprehensible or made comprehensible to them.
The Lexical Syllabus
This approach is based on a computer analysis of language which identifies the most common (and hence most useful) words in the language and their various uses. The syllabus teaches these words in broadly the order of their frequency, and great emphasis is placed on the use of authentic materials.
See: Willis, D. (1990) The Lexical Syllabus. Collins Cobuild
jueves, 1 de octubre de 2015
UNIDAD I Al término de esta unidad el participante estará en capacidad de reconocer, definir e identificar el área de Lingüística Aplicada en su relación con las disciplinas que la integran y sustentan en su vinculación con la enseñanza de idiomas. Investigar y publicar tanto para su blog personal como para su discusión en clase y respectivo taller de la unidad. las teorías que explican el proceso de adquisición del lenguaje: -Naturalista -Empirista -Racionalista -Ambientalista -Nativista -Cognitivista
UNIDAD I Lingüística Aplicada
Investigar y publicar tanto para su blog personal como para su discusión en clase y respectivo taller de la unidad
las teorías que explican el proceso de adquisición del lenguaje:
- -Naturalista
- -Empirista
- -Racionalista
- -Ambientalista
- -Nativista
- -Cognitivista.
Teoría Naturalista Del Lenguaje.
La teoría naturalista propone que las leyes de la naturaleza se aplican a todo, incluido el pensamiento humano. En este sentido, el punto de vista naturalista es totalmente determinista. Esto es, todos los acontecimientos están interrelacionados, y todos son el resultado de acontecimientos anteriores en una cadena ininterrumpida de causa y efecto que se remonta al origen de todo.
De este modo, los naturalistas radicales niegan incluso el libre albedrío, ya que lo que hacemos y pensamos estaría determinado (en un sentido matemático, como que 2 + 2 = 4) por nuestras experiencias previas, nuestra genética, y el ambiente el más amplio sentido de la palabra.
Teoría Empirista Del Lenguaje.
TEORIAS DEL DESARROLLO DEL LENGUAJE
También llamada teorías sobre la adquisición del lenguaje, se pueden citar cinco teorías sobre su desarrollo que son:SKINNER
El lenguaje se aprenderá por simples mecanismos de condicionamiento (premios y castigos).
Skinner puso de moda este enfoque en los años 50. En “Conducta verbal” trata de explicar cómo funciona y se aprende el lenguaje.
La posición empirista es: que el desarrollo del lenguaje depende de los estímulos externos.
Condicionamiento operante: el niño aprende respuestas verbales e intraverbales(los estímulos internos que permitieron aOsgood desarrollar la Teoría Mediacional). Es decir, a todo estímulo corresponde una respuesta que se ve reforzada (E!R); por lo que el niño aprenderá respuestas verbales por condicionamiento operante.
Implicaciones: la controversia creó una tensión teórica que favoreció el estudio del lenguaje infantil, todo el mundo empezó a teorizar; se estudia además de la respuesta del niño el estímulo, es decir, el episodio verbal global. Se presta atención al contexto, al habla que se da a los niños (baby talk) y se desarrollan programas de intervención en alteraciones del lenguaje infantil en educación especial y logopedia, algunos de los cuales siguen vigentes hoy en día.
Críticas: no se da cuenta de la complejidad del lenguaje, tiene un escaso alcance, el lenguaje es muy complejo para hablar de respuestas a estímulos, es una concha para vaciar el mar. Identifica aprendizaje animal y humano, cuando hay un salto cualitativo del estímulo-respuesta animal al lenguaje humano. No permite establecer etapas y el lenguaje no es continuo, en el desarrollo hay estancamientos, no es un proceso lineal.
CONDUCTISTA: Sostiene que el lenguaje es una conducta adquirida en un proceso gradual de relacionamiento responsivo reforzado. Skinner ha reexaminado el campo de la actividad humana verbal basándose en conocimientos sólidamente a través de la minuciosa experiencia con animales y hombres. Su marco de referencia conceptual no hace especial hincapié en la noción de forma (como es tradición en estudios de tipo lingüísticos), sino sobre la función.
Skinner rechazó que el lenguaje se utilizara para comunicarse. En lugar de eso propuso que para entender el habla, la escritura y otros usos del lenguaje, primero que nada debían de reconocer que son formas de conductas. Más aun, propuso que la conducta verbal no es diferente en lo esencial de cualquier otra forma de conducta. La conducta verbal se aprende en términos de relaciones funcionales entre la conducta y los eventos ambientales, particularmente de sus consecuencias. Es el ambiente social lo que refuerza la conducta verbal.
Skinner, de igual manera, no afirmó nunca que el lenguaje pueda ser aprendido solamente a partir de la imitación del habla adulta. Tampoco proclamó la necesidad de que todas las emisiones infantiles sean reforzadas. Señaló que el lenguaje está considerado por unidades que pueden dar lugar a nuevas combinaciones.Skinner apuntó las limitaciones de los mecanismos generales anteriormente señalados para dar cuenta de la naturalezaproductiva del lenguaje.
En Verbal Behavior, Skinner plantea que: La conducta verbal se caracteriza por ser una conducta reforzada a través de la mediación de otras personas, en la actividad del escucha. Las conductas del hablante y el escucha conforman juntas lo que podría denominarse un episodio completo.
De manera general se puede decir queSkinner:
1. Reemplaza la idea de lenguaje como entidad (algo que la persona adquiere y posee) y como instrumento (herramientaspara expresar ideas y estados mentales). La conducta verbal se estudia como cualquier otra conducta. Su particularidad es ser reforzada por sus efectos en la gente (primero en otra gente, pero eventualmenteen el mismo hablante). Como resultado, está libre de las relaciones espaciales, temporales y mecánicas que prevalecen entre la conducta operante y las consecuencias no sociales.
2. Se opone al mentalismo. Rechaza la concepción del lenguaje como usar palabras, comunicar ideas, compartir el significado, expresar pensamientos, etc. El lenguaje como conducta es objeto de estudio por su propio derecho, sin apelar a algo más.
3. Se opone a la causalidad mecanicistadel modelo de estímulo-respuesta. La conducta verbal es de tipo voluntario (operante), es seleccionada por sus consecuencias ambientales, y se investiga por análisis funcional, partiendo de ladescripción de la contingencia de tres términos.
4. La particularidad de la conducta verbal respecto a otras operantes, es que las consecuencias de la conducta del hablante están mediadas por otras personas. Las variables controladoras son sociales: la conducta de otros, controla la conducta verbal del hablante.
5. En vez de considerar el lenguaje como un conjunto de palabras que refieren a objetos, el significado de las palabras se investiga en términos de las variables que determinan su ocurrencia en una instancia particular. El significado se comprende al identificar las variables que controlan la emisión.
6. Propone el concepto de "conducta gobernada por reglas". Dentro de la conducta operante diferencia dos subclases: "conducta moldeada por las contingencias" (CMC) y "conducta gobernada por reglas" (CGR). La CGRocurre cuando el individuo actúa de acuerdo a reglas explicitas, consejos, instrucciones,modelos de actuación, planes, máximas, etc.
7. Las "reglas" son estímulos que especifican contingencias. De manera directa o por implicación de la experiencia previa, la regla especifica una consecuencia ambiental de ciertas conductas (por ejemplo: "quienes aprueban con 7 no rinden examen final"). Funcionan como estímulos discriminativos.
8. El efecto de una regla sobre un individuo depende de la historia de aprendizaje de ese individuo respecto a la conducta (operante) de "seguir reglas". Una persona seguirá reglas en la medida en que la conducta previa en respuesta a estímulos verbales similares (reglas, consejos) haya sido reforzada. Por eso, la selección por consecuencia es central para la CGR, aunque de manera menos directa que en laCMC. La mayoría de las conductas humanas son producto tanto de contingencias como de reglas.
JEAN PIAGET
El niño es constructor activo de su propio conocimiento.Este conocimiento se aprende de forma individual o colectiva, son fundamentales los términos de asimilación y acomodación donde la nueva información es asimilada de acuerdo a lo que ya se tiene. Ausubel lo plantea como aprendizaje significativo.
Es preciso decir que la educadora no es quien transmite el conocimiento, es una orientadora que aprende con el niño (a), su tarea es entonces facilitar espacios de aprendizaje individuales o grupales que le permitan al niño construir su conocimiento, además indagar sobre sus conocimientos previos para aplicar diferentes estrategias basadas en actividades didácticas que conlleven a un aprendizaje significativo.
Piaget destaca la prominencia racional del lenguaje y lo asume como uno de los diversos aspectos que integran lasuperestructura de la mente humana. El lenguaje es visto como un instrumento de la capacidad cognoscitiva y afectiva delindividuo, lo que indica que el conocimientolingüístico que el niño posee depende de suconocimiento del mundo.
Su estudio y sus teorías se basan en lasfunciones que tendría el lenguaje en el niño. Para Piaget las frases dichas por los niñosse clasifican en dos grandes grupos: las del lenguaje egocéntrico y las del lenguaje socializado; estas a su vez se dividen en las siguientes categorías
Teoría Racionalista del Lenguaje.
Las teorías lingüísticas: racionalismo y empirismo, individuo y sociedad
Las teorías del lenguaje representan una parte importante de nuestra racionalidad y comportamiento en sociedad. Muchosteóricos han dedicado en diversas ocasiones estudios sobre cuál es el origen y el proceso de nuestro lenguaje y de esto es lo que va a tratar el siguiente trabajo; de intentar deducir cuál es lanaturaleza lingüística que se esconde tras cada teoría. No obstante, sería preciso mencionar cuales son los dos polos principales del lenguaje antes de comenzar el análisis. En primer lugar, se encuentrala naturaleza psicológica del lenguaje, que tiene su origen en la racionalidad del ser humano, una característica que lo diferencia del resto de los animales. En el lenguaje el racionalismo es aquelloque tan solo se basa en lo estrictamente normativo y el estudio interno del lenguaje. Por otro lado, encontramos el carácter sociológico o empirista, que dedica su estudio a todo lo perteneciente a lasistematización del lenguaje por parte del hablante. Hoy en día se tiene constancia de cuatro grandes teorías del lenguaje: la gramática tradicional, la estructuralista, la generativa y por último,el análisis del discurso.
La gramática tradicional intenta una aproximación al significado partiendo de algunas categorías y funciones gramaticales que nacen de la retórica clásica, basada en los conceptos de la tradición aristotélica.
RACIONALISMO Y EMPIRISMO EN LA TEORIA DEL CONOCIMIENTO
Mientras que el Racionalismo se lleva a cabo por una idea determinada, por una idea de conocimiento, el Empirismo parte de hechos concretos para justificar su posición acude a la evolución del pensamiento y del conocimiento humano. Aunque de todo esto podemos concluir que Cualquier experimentación u observación de las ciencias empíricas (ciencias suaves) requieren de los elementos lógicos y conceptuales de las ciencias formales (ciencias duras) para su demostración y la una no excluye a la otra.
Algunos pensadores que destacados son Bacon y Descartes, que a pesar de ser primariamente filósofos hicieron (o intentaron hacer) contribuciones científicas en sus ratos libres, John Locke (1632-1704) fue un filósofo de tiempo completo. Su educación inicial fue en clásicos y en literatura, pero posteriormente estudió medicina y hasta la ejerció, aunque por poco tiempo. Ingresó al servicio de lord Shaftesbury en 1666 como consejero, médico y amigo, y cuando este político cayó y tuvo que refugiarse en Holanda, Locke lo acompañó y permaneció en ese país hasta la revolución de 1688, en que volvió a Inglaterra. Fue durante su estancia en Holanda que terminó de escribir su famoso Essayconcerning human undurstanding ("Ensayo sobre el entendimiento humano"), que apareció en 1690; de hecho, casi todos sus escritos importantes datan de un breve periodo posrevolucionario, comprendido entre 1687 y 1693. La filosofía política de Locke tuvo grandes repercusiones, no sólo en Inglaterra y posteriormente en EUA sino también en Francia, donde gracias a Voltaire su prestigio era enorme e inspiró a los reformistas moderados y a los philosophes. Sin embargo, de este aspecto de las ideas de Locke no diremos nada, porque tuvieron poca trascendencia en su teoría del conocimiento.
Daré a continuación una detallada explicación de cada una de las definiciones:
- El racionalismo apareció en Francia en el siglo XVII por lo tanto queda claro que Francia en ese entonces estaba regida por la monarquía. No es casualidad que cuando hablamos de racionalismo, aparece René Descartes, y no solo por que se opone al empirismo ya que el fue quien nos planteo que el sistema de pensamiento acentúa el papel de la razón en la adquisición del conocimiento, y digo que se opone al empirismo, porque este ultimo resalta el papel dela experiencia sobre todo el sentido de la percepción.
- A través de la historia desde épocas antiguas la construcción de conocimiento en el hombre ha sido uno de los temas con mayor debate y discusión entre los filósofos, académicos, políticos e interesados en el tema; una teoría interesante que trascendió por su propuesta en la formación del conocimiento fue El empirismo que es todo conocimiento basado en la experiencia por tanto toda otra teoría en contra de esto es falsa. Esta corriente de pensamiento ha repercutido a nivel social de manera muy trascendente y sentida. De manera positiva ha valorado las culturas y las ha hecho capaces de la universalidad, ha dimensionado al hombre, no por parámetros intelectuales sino por criterios de observación y percepción. Recategoriza al hombre haciéndolo más estético, dinámico, inquieto, pero también puede hacerlo Recategoriza al hombre haciéndolo más estético, dinámico, inquieto, pero también puede hacerlo omnipotente, desconocedor de Dios, de lo espiritual y lo metafísico.
- A mi parecer para algunos autores, el fundamento de la posibilidad del conocimiento es la realidad, bien la sensible (como han defendido los filósofos de orientación empirista), bien la inteligible (como aquellos racionalistas que han defendido el carácter realmente existente de las entidades conceptuales o nociones generales).
- Concluyo con que el empirismo y el racionalismo tiene mucho que ver en la teoría del conocimiento ya que estas dos corrientes filosóficas surgieron por la necesidad de encontrar una respuesta al conocimiento, por eso es que son muy importantes, además de que las corrientes ya han pasado, es increíble como aun no se han extinguido ya que en la época moderna hay presonas que aun tienen espíritu empirista y sobre la teoría del conocimiento crei que no es la hora de que haya una definición e investigación argumentada de dicho conocimiento, a mi parecer eso requiere años y tal vez un día pueda haber una explicación lógica y coherente de el misterio del conocimiento.
Bibliografías:
- * www.wiki/empirismo-0547p/rx02-545.com
- * Http://buenastareas/conocimiento/epirista/12/01/2009/.com
- * Enciclopedia Hispánica; 5: 402-404; 1994-1995.
- * Enciclopedia Microsoft Encarta `97.
- * Gutiérrez Saenz, Raúl; Introducción a la filosofía; Editorial Esfinge.
- * Hessen; Teoría del conocimiento; Editorial Esfinge.
- * http://www.queesunensayo.net/
- * http://es.wikihow.com/hacer-un-ensayo.
Teoría Ambientalista.
Socio-constructivismo. Basado en muchas de las ideas de Vigotski, considera también los aprendizajes como un proceso personal de construcción de nuevos conocimientos a partir de los saberes previos, pero inseparable de la situación en la que se produce. El aprendizaje es un proceso que está íntimamente relacionado con la sociedad.
Corriente ambientalista
Dentro de esta corriente se encuentran aquellas teorías que a diferencia de la anterior sitúan la causalidad de las dificultades de aprendizaje en el ambiente socio-familiar y educativo y no en el sujeto. La causa pues no es estructural sino experimental. Dentro de esta corriente se sitúan modelos como el conductual y los modelos centrados en el entorno Modelo conductual Desde este modelo, la conducta se contempla como "una interacción construida a través del tiempo entre el organismo (sujeto en desarrollo) y su ambiente físico y social". La conducta, el comportamiento ya sea adaptado o inadaptado, normal o anormal, viene determinado por tres acontecimientos enlazados:
Agentes biológicos del pasado Factores genéticos que determinan la anormalidad organismica o la anormalidad por lesiones o daños permanentes en el sistema nervioso, órganos sensoriales, motores...
Agentes biológicos actuales Desempeñan una función "disposicional", dado que afectan a la interacción habitual sujeto-medio, orientando la conducta hacia un comportamiento adaptativo o no y de forma transitoria o permanente, dependiendo de la enfermedad y sus secuelas.
Historia de aprendizaje del sujeto Construida por un conjunto de interacciones con el ambiente, realizadas por el sujeto a lo largo de su existencia. Las condiciones ambientales son el contexto físico, familiar, escolar y social, donde el sujeto interactúa.
- En aquellos sujetos que no presentan daño orgánico manifiesto, las dificultades de aprendizaje se explicarían por otros determinantes como la historia de aprendizaje del sujeto, las condiciones ambientales o los agentes biológicos. Naturales.
- Modelos centrados en el entorno
- El ambiente constituye un núcleo importante dentro de las teorías socioculturales y del enfoque ecológico. Para estos modelos, los determinantes fundamentales en el surgimiento de las dificultades de aprendizaje son los distintos factores contextuales en los que está inmerso el niño
- Corriente institucionalista
- El énfasis para esta corriente se sitúa en la calidad de las relaciones interpersonales que se establezcan en el medio familiar y escolar.
- Uno de los enfoques más influyentes en el medio escolar es el enfoque ecológico del desarrollo humano de Broufenbrenner, para quien el desarrollo es el resultado de la acomodación progresiva y reciproca entre un individuo activo y las propiedades cambiantes de los escenarios en los que vive.
- Corriente sociocultural
- Las teorías socioculturales sostienen que aunque el fracaso de un niño se manifiesta a nivel individual, su causa no es exclusivamente psicológica y/o metodológica, sino que puede asociarse con factores de índole sociocultural y económica.
- Corriente integradora
- Explica las dificultades de aprendizaje como resultado de la conjunción de las dos perspectivas anteriores: organicistas y ambientalistas. Aboga por una acusación múltiple de las dificultades de aprendizaje, que en opinión de los defensores de esta corriente surgen de la interacción de variables personales con variables ambientales
- Las alteraciones en las relaciones sociales de los niños con dificultades de aprendizaje pueden ser consecuencia del desarrollo interactivo de causas personales y de causas ambientales.
- a) La percepción y comprensión de las situaciones sociales pueden deberse a su fracaso en la habilidad para percibir y comprender las situaciones sociales, los pensamientos, los sentimientos, los motivos de los demás, y los indicadores sociales, así como para adoptar perspectivas ajenas en el enfoque de las situaciones sociales.
- b)Déficits motivacionales.Las reiteradas experiencias de fracasos y la tendencia a la posibilidad y a dejarse dirigir por los demás obrarían en contra de la motivación del logro de los niños con dificultades de aprendizaje, afectando negativamente tanto en su interés por los aprendizajes y actividades escolares, como en sus deseos de agradar, de no ser rechazado etc.
- c) La percepción de sí mismo y de los demás.Las alteraciones serían debidas a una elevada tendencia a sobre-estimar las capacidades y habilidades de los demás; y a los bajos índices de auto-estima personal. La baja-autoestima se relaciona con los elevados índices de ansiedad y con pobreza de ejecución académica, en un ciclo de dificil ruptura.
- d) Déficits-excesos conductuales..Carencia de las necesarias habilidades motrices y de autocontrol para responder adecuada y oportunamente en las distintas situaciones (Hiperactividad, retirada social, agresividad, distracción etc.)
- a) Teorías ambientalistas:
- El principal representante de la psicología introspectiva es Edward Bradford
- Para la psicología introspectiva, el aprendizaje, como la experiencia, era un objeto de estudio empírico, susceptible de ser controlado. Por lo que, el aprendizaje era toda aquella información recibida por el sujeto a través de la experiencia. A pesar de las grandes limitaciones, se puede considerar a la psicología introspectiva como la fundadora de la psicología como ciencia.
TEORIAS NATIVISTAS
Las distintas teorías que se han desarrollado en los últimos cuarenta años se han basado tanto en los conocimientos sobre el funcionamiento de la mente humana como en la práctica docente.
La diferencia entre ellas se debe, fundamentalmente, en la importancia que los investigadores han concebido a los diferentes factores que intervienen en el proceso de adquisición de la lengua, entre ellos: mecanismos innatos y conocimiento, interacciones entre habilidades innatas, habilidades aprendidas y factores ambientales, características del alumno y el input lingüístico. Martin, plantea que la importancia concebida a cada uno de estos factores junto con el tipo de variables que han servido de base a cada una de las investigaciones – variables neurológicas cognitivas, afectivas, lingüísticas y situacionales han dado como resultado de formulación de las diferentes teorías sobre la adquisición de una segunda lengua.
Una del grupo de teorías es de las teorías nativistas. El término nativista proviene de la afirmación de que la adquisición de una lengua se produce de una manera innata, es decir que viene de nacimiento. Según Martín Noam Chomsky, su máximo exponente, se refiere a este fenómeno como la predisposición a la adquisición a la lengua, una percepción sistemática de la lengua que nos permite la construcción de un sistema lingüístico interno. Esta predisposición forma parte de la genérica humana heredada. Entonces el niño que está en proceso de aprender su lengua materno, constantemente se formula hipótesis y hace generalizaciones o sobre generalizaciones sobre reglas elaboradas por su experiencia. Guell (1998) asevera que Chomsky (1984), wode y krashen (1985) plantea una dotación específica para la lengua: la gramática universal; por ejemplo, postula el conocimiento innato de universales básicos tales como las categorías sintácticas (sujeto, objeto, nombre y verbo) a los rasgos fonológicos distintivos, así como de universales formales (principios abstractos que gobiernan posibles reglas y parámetros de las lenguas humanas). Otros como Parker (1989) consideran innata la dotación de unas nociones cognitivas generales – dependencia, contigüidad, prioridad continuidad, etc. , a partir de las cuales se construyen los principios gramaticales, y unos mecanismos que utiliza para todo tipo de aprendizaje, incluido el de la lengua. Otros terceros dulay y burt (1975) y felix (1984) consideran que esta dotación innata incluye tanto los principios lingüísticos como las nociones cognitivas.
De todas las teorías nativistas la más conocida es la de Chomsky y elaboro sobre el desarrollo del lenguaje infantil, a la cual también se ha recurrido para elaborar una teoría de la adquisición de las segundas lenguas.
Según Quidel (2006) al argumento principal que se ha usado en la defensa de esa teoría es que si no tuviésemos ese talento innato, sería imposible aprender una lengua puesto que los datos que obtenemos del input –lengua que el aprendiz oye o lee, no son lo suficientemente ricos para del input –lengua que el aprendiz oye o lee, no son lo suficientemente ricos para permitir la adquisición y mucho menos que esta sea tan rápida y regular como resulta la adquisición de la lengua materna. y sobre todo, no podríamos dar sentido a ese input si solo dispusiéramos de un procedimiento general de aprendizaje inductivo .
La red escolar nacional RENa (2008) plantea que los nativistas han sido motivo de controversias pues los empiristas y conductistas no aceptan la existencia de una gramática innata y programada en el cerebro humano. Los conductistas señalan que las diferentes gramaticales existen entre los idiomas son pruebas de que el lenguaje es un fenómeno adquirido por medio del proceso de aprendizaje. A su vez , Noam Chomsky responde que estas diferencias se presentan solo en la estructura superficial de los idiomas, pero no en la estructura profunda. Es decir, si en la estructura superficial se advierten las diferencias gramaticales de los distintos idiomas , en la estructura profunda se advierte una gramática válida para todos los idiomas , pues cada individuo , al nacer , posee una gramática universal que, con el tiempo y gracias a un contexto social concreto, se convierte en una gramática particular.
Por otro lado algunos teóricos como Larsen- freeman y Long (1991) se opusieron a estas teorías. Ellos afirmaron que la explicación que da Chomsky de la adquisición lingüística contiene, al menos, tres asunciones cuestionables:
La primera es que el aprendizaje se produce muy deprisa y queda casi determinado a los cinco años de edad, cuando el aprendizaje se produce muy deprisa y queda casi determinado a los cinco años de edad, cuando la realidad es que la mayor parte de la sintaxis compleja no se domina hasta mucho más tarde.
Una segunda asunción, también crucial, es q ciertos principios sintácticos no se pueden aprender, por consiguiente son innatos. Por último, un tercer supuesto es que el input del que dispone los aprendices es inadecuado, en concreto por carecer de la evidencia negativa necesaria para hacer frente tanto a una complejidad excesiva como ala sobre generalización.
Aunque esto es cierto en lo que se refriere ala anuencia de input negativo, no es necesario presuponer un conocimiento lingüístico innato, si no q el aprendizaje puede ser un proceso que implique la adopción inicial de hipótesis conservadoras, con ausencia de complejidad máxima, seguida de un movimiento de desarrollo continuo donde la complejidad va creciendo gradualmente, regido por una teoría del aprendizaje y dirigido por pruebas positivas.
Por todas las afirmaciones, en pro o en contra, anteriores dan cuenta de la importancia de lo innato. Lo más llamativo es que a pesar de una teoría aceptada, de ella se desprenden otras teorías que buscan mejorar, de alguna manera, hasta el momento planteado por los nativistas. Entre las teorías que surgen a partir de las nativistas se puede mencionar las teorías ambientalistas del aprendizaje, que de acuerdo con Quidel la educación de un organismo de una experiencia que se supone son más importantes para el desarrollo que las dotes innatas. De hecho, casi siempre supone son más importantes para el desarrollo que las dotes innatas. De hecho, casi siempre desmentirán que las contribuciones innatas jueguen otro papel que no sea proporcional al animal la estructura interna que pueden configurar las fuerzas ambientales (Larsen y Long 1994 citado en quidel op. cit.). Esta teoría resalta la importancia del medio porque proporciona elementos que permite la ASL muy contraía a la posición nativista de Noam Chomsky.
Al igual que la teoría innata la ambientalista también a recibidos fuertes críticas en torno a sus planteamientos en la ASL según Quidel (op.cit.) la teoría no ha hecho ningún avance por que solamente busca elementos exógenos para la explicación de los procesos del ASL
En cambio, la interaccionista, tercera y última teoría utiliza el método ecléctico, al tener en cuenta elementos de los dos enfoques mencionados anteriormente. “Las teorías interaccionistas, en igualdad de condiciones tienen más poder que las teorías nativistas o ambientales porque recurren a factores innatos y ambientales para explicar el aprendizaje de la lengua” Larsen y Long (1994 citado en quidel op.cit.).
Al parecer esta teoría tiene más validez que las dos (nativista y ambientalistas) porque, combina elementos de ambas teorías para definir el proceso de la ASL. Considerándose que se necesita de más elementos de investigación, tales como: factores, variables, causas, procesos, etc.; para que el investigador manipule los datos de interés.
Teoría Cognitivista.
1. DEFINICIÓN: Es una de las teorías del desarrollo humano que estudia los cambios en la manera de pensar a través del tiempo.
Es uno de los recursos centrales y quizá mejor investigados en las personas mayores. Los recursos cognitivos se dividen en una serie de subprocesos y solo una observación bien diferenciada puede aclararlos fenómenos de su desarrollo
1.1. CARACTERISTICAS
• Las condiciones ambientales forman parte de la facilitación del aprendizaje.
• Las explicaciones, demostraciones, ejemplos demostrativos se consideran con instrumentos para guiar el aprendizaje.
• El conocimiento debe ser significativo y que se ayude al estudiante a organizar y relacionar nueva información con el conocimiento existente en la memoria
• La instrucción debe ser efectiva, debe basarse en las estructuras mentales, o esquemas que tiene el estudiante.
• La información debe organizarse de tal manera que los estudiantes sean capaces de conectar la nueva información con el conocimiento existente de forma significativa.
• La retroalimentación forma un papel importante en esta teoría, ya que se utiliza para guiar las conexiones mentales exactas.
2. PRECURSORES DEL COGNITIVISMO
2.1. Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
Científico suizo, fue el gran precursor de la teoría cognitiva. Piaget comenzó a interesarse en los procesos del pensamiento humano cuando fue contratado para realizar una prueba piloto de preguntas para un test de inteligencia estándar en París.
Piaget es gestor de la llamada teoría genética, la cual a partir de los principios constructivos plantea que el conocimiento no se adquiere por interiorización del entorno social, sino que predomina la construcción realizada por parte del sujeto.
A partir de esta premisa él género una teoría del desarrollo cognitivo del niño.
Adaptación e inteligencia: según Piaget (1956), la inteligencia consistirá en la capacidad de mantener una constante adaptación de los esquemas del sujeto al mundo en que se desenvuelve.
Asimilación: este proceso consiste en incorporar nueva información en un esquema preexistente, adecuado para integrar (comprenderla).
Acomodación: al contrario de la asimilación, la acomodación produce cambios en el esquema. Este proceso ocurre cuando un esquema se modifica para poder incorporar informaciones nuevas.
Estos dos procesos permiten que los esquemas del sujeto se encuentren siempre adaptados al ambiente y permiten al continuo crecimiento.
Equilibracion: otro punto interesante de los planteamientos de Piaget con respecto al desarrollo y al aprendizaje concierne al mecanismo que impulsa a estos. El impulso para el crecimiento y el aprendizaje no proviene en Piaget, enteramente del medio ambiente, como ocurre en el conductismo. Por el contrario este impulso está dado por la equilibracion, una tendencia que les permitan dar coherencia a su mundo percibido.
2.2. OBJETIVOS
OBJETIVO GENERAL
• Investigar y exponer lo más relevante con respecto a la teoría cognitiva de Jean Piaget y su aporte a la psicología del desarrollo.
• Estudiar y describir las cuatro etapas básicas de la teoría Piagetiana.
OBJETIVOS ESPECÍFICOS
• Analizar el concepto de desarrollo según Piaget.
• Conocer el objetivo de las investigaciones de Piaget.
• Describir las etapas del desarrollo que plantea Jean Piaget.
• Identificar lo manifiesto en cada una de estas etapas.
• Reconocer la magnitud y relación de la teoría piagetiana en el desarrollo cognitivo.
• Comprender la importancia de los aportes de la teoría de piagetiana en la educación y en la psicología del desarrollo.
2.3. PRUEBAS PIAGETIANAS
Son pruebas creadas por Piaget cuyo objetivo es medir el razonamiento lógico. Estas pruebas son de conservación de masa y número y constituyen una condición necesaria de actividad racional
- Conservación de masas bajo transformación
Esta prueba mide la estructuración lógica de la necesidad de conservación, es decir que mediante ella se establece la interacción que existe entre los factores internos de su maduración y las condiciones externas de su experiencia. Los niños creen que con cada transformación se produce un aumento o disminución de la cantidad de materia.
Conservación de cantidades bajo transformación
Esta prueba mide la estructuración lógica de la construcción del número.
(Separar o juntar fichas, hacer círculo, entre otros)
Serialización, clasificación y orden
Esta prueba mide la capacidad de los niños para clasificar y ordenar objetos.
2.4. David Ausubel (1918-2008) Psicólogo y pedagogo estadounidense, consideró que el aprendizaje por descubrimiento no debe ser presentado como opuesto al aprendizaje por exposición (recepción), ya que éste puede ser igual de eficaz, si se cumplen unas características. Así, el aprendizaje escolar puede darse por recepción o por descubrimiento, como estrategia de enseñanza, y puede lograr un aprendizaje significativo o memorístico y repetitivo.
Suscribirse a:
Entradas (Atom)